--- quoting from http://www.slate.com/id/2116402/
detaching muscles from bones and bones from one another. (Tendons
connect muscles to bones;
ligaments connect bones to each other.....
Glenn Fleisig, a biomechanical engineer who studies pitching at the
American Sports Medicine
Institute in Birmingham, Ala., has calculated that about 80 Newton-
meters of torque act on an
elite pitcher's elbow when he throws a fastball
--- end quoting in parts from http://www.slate.com/id/2116402/

I quoted the above because there is an upper limit to the stresses
that the elbow endures in
Overarm snapping elbow throw. Apparently that limit is about 80 Newton-
meters.

Again that emphasizes that the major seat of evolution between the
human species and all other primates is
that the elbow is the focal point of Throwing which caused neocortex
brain expansion and throwing caused to create
bipedalism. The elbow is the weakest point of throwing, yet it is the
elbow of human species that is far
superior in throwing compared to any ape. So here we have a number for
that strength and weakness of the
human elbow.

--- quoting in part http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/8682/physics.htm
Distance thrown, d=Vcos(n)t'; substitute:

d=Vcos(n)(Vsin(n)+sqrt[(Vsin(n))^2 + 19.6h])/9.8.

So this is the relationship of distance thrown (d), angle of release
(n), height of release (h),
and release velocity (V).
--- end quoting in part http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/8682/physics.htm

It is neat to be able to say that the species human-kind compared to
say the chimpanzee species
or bonobo species can be given by a mathematics formula as well as a
DNA genome mapping.
Now I am not saying that the above math formula distinguishes homo-
sapiens from chimp species
but I am saying that a formula does exist that distinguishes Homo-
sapiens from any ape species
and that formula is a formula involving the ability of the body to
throw rocks and stones.

But science has not fully listed and given measure to the various
types of throwing. There are at least
three types of throwing and very many more. I list the three main
ones:

(a) Underarm pendulum sling throw: this is done by women in softball.
It keeps the elbow somewhat
stiff. And the throw pivots through a 180 degree angle. This is the
throw that chimpanzees display
when they throw feces in zoos

(b) Overarm pendulum sling throw: also called windmill throw, this is
done by cricket-sport throwers
where the elbow is kept
rather stiff and where the elbow is not injured but that the should in
Rotator Cuff is given a work out.
In the overarm sling throw the arm pivots through a 360 degree angle.

(c) Overarm snapping elbow thrust throw: this is done most often by
baseball pitchers who want to
achieve the "fastball". This is the throw that our ancestors would
have used as their best throw to
kill another animal or scare off. It is the throw that achieves the
maximum distance, and maximum
force. It uses several torques. It uses 180 degree pivot of arms. It
uses a 90 degree pivot of shoulder
and backbone. Plus it uses anywhere from 180 to 360 degree pivot in
legs and feet. So the reason
the fastball occurs in the snapping elbow overarm is that so many
torques are involved that are not
involved in (b) or (a).

In the above math formula of throwing it is the Overarm snapping elbow
that is wanted to be described
but is not fully filled in with all the torques involved in Overarm
elbow snapping compared to Overarm
windmill.

There is alot of physics going on in (c) and apparently no-one has
fully described the physics in a website
to the Internet. There may have been someone who wrote a book on a
more full description with math
formulas, and if so, I am not aware of it.

I am content in saying that Overarm Elbow Snapping is the maximum
efficient Throwing since it involves the
upper arm and lower arm with elbow at midpoint to deliver maximum
thrust. It is the geometry that the elbow
is the midpoint of the arm that proves humanity was a Throwing primate
whereas the other primates were not
(c) type throwers.

That if someone has written out a complete formula for (c) type
throwing that includes all the torques. That the
formula would assume that the Elbow joint is the midpoint of the arm.
That if a chimp were to throw overarm
snapping elbow, and because the chimp elbow is not at the midpoint,
that the chimp is either unable to throw
(c) at all, or if able would be a poor and tiny result.

In the physics of throwing it is known as a geometrical principle that
the greatest distance achieved in
a throw is when the initial trajectory is 45 degree angle and it lands
at a 45 degree angle. In other words
equilateral triangle for initiation and landing. Similarly, to achieve
maximum thrust in an animal that throws
rocks and stones, the elbow has to be at the midpoint of the arm. So
our earliest ancestors probably had
arms much like what chimps have today where their lower arm is longer
than upper arm.

So, even though I do not have the full formula, today, to write out
all the torques and thrust of throwing
overarm snapping elbow (c) style throwing. I do have the key principle
in that throwing style that maximizes
Throwing. The key principle is that the elbow is at the midpoint of
the arm. So when the full formula is given,
that the maximum in throwing exists when the elbow is the midpoint and
thus the upper arm and lower arm
form an equilateral triangle.

I suspect someone in the last century fully wrote out a formula to
describe (c) with all of its torques and thrust.

And there is a minor experiment that I can perform that proves the
equilateral triangle maximum. We get
steel rods with holes spaced variously and we assemble these rods with
a pivot joint. Picture a switch blade
knife where the blade is equal to the handle in distance. And other
knives where the blade is shorter or longer
than the handle. And we measure the thrust and torque. The knife that
has maximum thrust is where
the blade length equals the handle length.

Archimedes Plutonium
www.iw.net/~a_plutonium
whole entire Universe is just one big atom
where dots of the electron-dot-cloud are galaxies